This article is about aviation history. For the history of spaceflight, see History of spaceflight.

French reconnaissance balloon L'Intrépide of 1796, the oldest existing flying device, in the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum, Vienna

The Wright Military Flyer aboard a wagon in 1908

Leonardo da Vinci's ornithopter designThe history of aviation spans over two millennia, from the earliest innovations like kites and attempts at tower jumping to supersonic and hypersonic flight in powered, heavier-than-air jet aircraft. Kite flying in China, dating back several hundred years BC, is considered the earliest example of man-made flight.[1] In the 15th-century Leonardo da Vinci designed several flying machines incorporating aeronautical concepts, but they were unworkable due to the limitations of contemporary knowledge.[2]

In the late 18th century, the Montgolfier brothers invented the hot-air balloon which soon led to manned flights. At almost the same time, the discovery of hydrogen gas led to the invention of the hydrogen balloon.[3] Various theories in mechanics by physicists during the same period, such as fluid dynamics and Newton's laws of motion, led to the development of modern aerodynamics; most notably by Sir George Cayley. Balloons, both free-flying and tethered, began to be used for military purposes from the end of the 18th century, with France establishing balloon companies during the French Revolution.[4]

In the 19th century, especially the second half, experiments with gliders provided the basis for learning the dynamics of winged aircraft; most notably by Cayley, Otto Lilienthal, and Octave Chanute. By the early 20th century, advances in engine technology and aerodynamics made controlled, powered, manned heavier-than-air flight possible for the first time. In 1903, following their pioneering research and experiments with wing design and aircraft control, the Wright brothers successfully incorporated all of the required elements to create and fly the first aeroplane.[5] The basic configuration with its characteristic cruciform tail was established by 1909, followed by rapid design and performance improvements aided by the development of more powerful engines.

The first vessels of the air were the rigid steerable balloons pioneered by Ferdinand von Zeppelin that became synonymous with airships and dominated long-distance flight until the 1930s, when large flying boats became popular for trans-oceanic routes. After World War II, the flying boats were in turn replaced by airplanes operating from land, made far more capable first by improved propeller engines, then by jet engines, which revolutionized both civilian air travel and military aviation.

In the latter half of the 20th century, the development of digital electronics led to major advances in flight instrumentation and fly-by-wire systems. The 21st century has seen the widespread use of pilotless drones for military, commercial, and recreational purposes. With computerized controls, inherently unstable aircraft designs, such as flying wings, have also become practical.

EtymologyThe term aviation, is a noun of action from the stem of Latin avis bird with the suffix -ation meaning action or progress. It was coined in 1863 by French pioneer Guillaume Joseph Gabriel de La Landelle (1812–1886) in Aviation ou Navigation aérienne sans ballons.[6][7]

Primitive beginningsMain article: Early flying machinesFor a chronological guide, see Timeline of aviation.Tower jumping

Daedalus working on Icarus' wingsSince ancient times, there have been stories of men strapping birdlike wings, stiffened cloaks, or other devices to themselves and attempting to fly, typically by jumping off a tower. The Greek legends of Daedalus and Icarus are some of the earliest known.[8] Others originated in ancient Asia[9] and the European Middle Ages. During this early period, the concepts of lift, stability, and control were not well understood, and most attempts resulted in serious injuries or death.

The Andalusian scientist Abbas ibn Firnas (810–887 AD) attempted to fly in Córdoba, Spain, by covering his body with vulture feathers and attached two wings to his arms.[10][11] The 17th-century Algerian historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari, quoting a poem by Muhammad I of Córdoba's 9th-century court poet Mu'min ibn Said, recounts that Firnas flew some distance before landing with some injuries, attributed to his lacking a tail (as birds use them to land).[10][12] In the 12th century, William of Malmesbury wrote that Eilmer of Malmesbury, an 11th-century Benedictine monk, attached wings to his hands and feet and flew a short distance,[10] but broke both legs while landing, also having neglected to make himself a tail.[12]

Many others made well-documented jumps in the following centuries. As late as 1811, Albrecht Berblinger constructed an ornithopter and jumped into the Danube at Ulm.[13][page needed]